A History of the Guillotine in Europe

A History of the Guillotine in Europe The guillotine is one of European historys most bloody icons. Although designed with the best of intentions, this hugely recognizable machine soon became associated with events that have overshadowed both its heritage and its development: the French Revolution. Yet, despite such a high profile and chilling reputation, histories of la guillotine remain muddled, often differing on quite basic details. Learn about the events that brought the guillotine to prominence, and also the machines place in a broader history of decapitation which, as far as France is concerned, finished only recently. Pre-Guillotine Machines - the Halifax Gibbet Although older narratives may tell you that the guillotine was invented in the late 18th century, most recent accounts recognize that similar decapitation machines have a long history. The most famous, and possibly one of the earliest, was the Halifax Gibbet, a monolithic wooden structure which was supposedly created from two fifteen foot high uprights capped by a horizontal beam. The blade was an axe head, attached to the bottom of a four and a half foot wooden block that slid up and down via grooves in the uprights. This device was mounted on a large, square, platform which was itself four foot high. The Halifax Gibbet was certainly substantial, and may date from as early as 1066, although the first definite reference is from the 1280s. Executions took place in the towns Market Place on Saturdays, and the machine remained in use until April 30th, 1650. Pre-Guillotine Machines in Ireland Another early example is immortalized in the picture The execution of Murcod Ballagh near to Merton in Ireland 1307. As the title suggests, the victim was called Murcod Ballagh, and he was decapitated by equipment which looks remarkably similar to the later French guillotines. Another, unrelated, picture depicts the combination of a guillotine style machine and a traditional beheading. The victim is lying on a bench, with an axe head held above his neck by some sort of mechanism. The difference lies in the executioner, who is shown wielding a large hammer, ready to strike the mechanism and drive the blade down. If this device existed, it may have been an attempt to improve the accuracy of the impact. Use of Early Machines There were many other machines, including the Scottish Maiden - a wooden construction based directly on the Halifax Gibbet, dating from the mid 16th century - and the Italian Mannaia, which was famously used to execute Beatrice Cenci, a woman whose life is obscured by clouds of myth. Beheading was usually reserved for the wealthy or powerful as it was considered to be nobler, and certainly less painful, than other methods; the machines were similarly restricted. However, the Halifax Gibbet is an important, and often overlooked, exception, because it was used to execute anyone breaking the relevant laws, including the poor. Although these decapitation machines certainly existed - the Halifax Gibbet was alleged to have been only one out of a hundred similar devices in Yorkshire - they were generally localized, with a design and use unique to their region; the French guillotine was to be very different. Pre-Revolutionary Methods of French Execution Many methods of execution were used across France in the early 18th century, ranging from the painful, to the grotesque, bloody and painful. Hanging and burning were common, as were more imaginative methods, such as tying the victim to four horses and forcing these to gallop in different directions, a process that tore the individual apart. The rich or powerful could be beheaded with axe or sword, while many suffered the compilation of death and torture that comprised hanging, drawing and quartering. These methods had a twofold purpose: to punish the criminal  and to act as a warning for others; accordingly, the majority of executions took place in public. Opposition to these punishments was slowly growing, due mainly to the ideas and philosophies of the Enlightenment thinkers - people such as Voltaire and Locke - who argued for humanitarian methods of execution. One of these was Dr. Joseph-Ignace Guillotin; however, it is unclear whether the doctor was an advocate of capital punishment, or someone who wanted it to be, ultimately, abolished. Dr. Guillotins Proposals The  French Revolution  began in 1789, when an attempt to relieve a financial crisis exploded very much in the faces of the monarchy. A meeting called an Estates General transformed into a National Assembly which seized control of the moral and practical power at the heart of France, a process which convulsed the country, re-shaping the countrys social, cultural and political makeup. The legal system was reviewed immediately. On October 10th 1789 - the second day of the debate about Frances penal code - Dr. Guillotin proposed six articles to the  new Legislative Assembly, one of which called for decapitation to become the sole method of execution in France. This was to be carried out by a simple machine, and involve no torture. Guillotin presented an etching that illustrated one possible device, resembling an ornate, but hollow, stone column with a falling blade, operated by an effete executioner cutting the suspension rope. The machine was also hidden from the view of large crowds, according with Guillotins view that execution should be private and dignified. This suggestion was rejected; some accounts describe the Doctor being laughed, albeit nervously, out of the Assembly. Narratives often ignore the other five reforms: one asked for a nationwide standardisation in punishment, while others concerned the treatment of the criminals family, who were not to be harmed or discredited; property, which was not to be confiscated; and corpses, which were to be returned to the families. When Guillotin proposed his articles again on December 1st 1789, these five recommendations were accepted, but the beheading machine was, again, rejected. Growing Public Support The situation developed in 1791, when the Assembly agreed - after weeks of discussion - to retain the death penalty; they then began to discuss a more humane and egalitarian method of execution, as many of the previous techniques were felt to be too barbaric and unsuitable. Beheading was the preferred option, and the Assembly accepted a new, albeit repetitive, proposal by the Marquis Lepeletier de Saint-Fargeau, decreeing that Every person condemned to the death penalty shall have his head severed. Guillotins notion of a decapitation machine began to grow in popularity, even if the Doctor himself had abandoned it. Traditional methods like the sword or axe could prove messy and difficult, especially if the executioner missed or the prisoner struggled; a machine would not only be fast and reliable, but it would never tire. Frances main executioner, Charles-Henri Sanson, championed these final points. The First Guillotine Is Built The Assembly - working through Pierre-Louis Roederer, the Procureur gà ©nà ©ral - sought advice from Doctor Antoine Louis, the Secretary of the Academy of Surgery in France, and his design for a quick, painless, decapitation machine was given to Tobias Schmidt, a German Engineer. It is unclear whether Louis drew his inspiration from existing devices, or whether he designed from afresh. Schmidt built the  first guillotine  and tested it, initially on animals, but later on human corpses. It comprised two fourteen-foot uprights joined by a crossbar, whose internal edges were grooved and greased with tallow; the weighted blade was either straight, or curved like an axe. The system was operated via a rope and pulley, while the whole construction was mounted on a high platform. The final testing took place at a hospital in Bicà ªtre, where three carefully chosen corpses - those of strong, stocky men - were successfully beheaded. The first execution took place on April 25th, 1792, when a highwayman called Nicholas-Jacques Pelletier was killed. Further improvements were made, and an independent report to Roederer recommended a number of changes, including metal trays to collect blood; at some stage the famous angled blade was introduced and the high platform abandoned, replaced by a basic scaffold. The Guillotine Spreads Throughout France This improved machine was accepted by the Assembly, and copies were sent to each of the new territorial regions, named Departments. Pariss own was initially based at the place de  Carroussel, but the device was frequently moved. In the aftermath of Pelletiers execution the contraption became known as the Louisette or Louison, after Dr. Louis; however, this name was soon lost, and other titles emerged. At some stage, the machine became known as the  Guillotin, after Dr. Guillotin - whose main contribution had been a set of legal articles - and then finally la guillotine. It is also unclear precisely why, and when, the final e was added, but it probably developed out of attempts to rhyme Guillotin in poems and chants. Dr Guillotin himself wasnt very happy at being adopted as the name. The Machine Open to All The guillotine may have been similar in form and function to other, older, devices, but it broke new ground: an entire country officially, and unilaterally, adopted this decapitation machine for all of its executions. The same design was shipped out to all the regions, and each was operated in the same manner, under the same laws; there was supposed to be no local variation. Equally, the guillotine was designed to administer a fast and painless death to anyone, regardless of age, sex or wealth, an embodiment of such concepts as equality and humanity. Before the French Assemblys 1791 decree beheading was usually reserved for the rich or powerful, and it continued to be in other parts of Europe; however, Frances guillotine was available to all. The Guillotine Is Quickly Adopted Perhaps the most unusual aspect of the guillotines history is the sheer speed and scale of its adoption and use. Born out of a discussion in 1789 that had actually considered banning the death penalty, the machine had been used to kill over 15,000 people by the Revolutions close in 1799, despite not being fully invented until the middle of 1792. Indeed, by 1795, only a year and a half after its first use, the guillotine had decapitated over a thousand people in Paris alone. Timing certainly played a part, because the machine was introduced across France only months before a bloody new period in the revolution: The Terror. The Terror In 1793, political events caused a new governmental body to be introduced: The  Committee of Public Safety. This was supposed to work quickly and effectively, protecting the Republic from enemies and solving problems with the necessary force; in practice, it became a dictatorship run by Robespierre. The committee demanded the arrest and execution of anyone who either by their conduct, their contacts, their words or their writings, showed themselves to be supporters of tyranny, of federalism, or to be enemies of liberty (Doyle, The  Oxford History of the French Revolution, Oxford, 1989 p.251). This loose definition could cover almost everyone, and during the years 1793-4 thousands were sent to the guillotine. It is important to remember that, of the many who perished during the terror, most were not guillotined. Some were shot, others drowned, while in Lyon, on the 4 to the 8th of December 1793, people were lined up in front of open graves and shredded by grape-shot from cannons. Despite this, the guillotine became synonymous with the period, transforming into a social and political symbol of equality, death and the Revolution. The Guillotine Passes Into Culture It is easy to see why the quick, methodical, movement of the machine should have transfixed both France and Europe. Every execution involved a fountain of blood from the victims neck, and the sheer number of people being beheaded could create red pools, if not actual flowing streams. Where executioners once prided themselves on their skill, speed now became the focus; 53 people were executed by the Halifax Gibbet between 1541 and 1650, but some guillotines exceeded that total in a single day. The gruesome images coupled easily with morbid humour, and the machine became a cultural icon affecting fashion, literature, and even childrens toys. After the Terror, the Victims Ball became fashionable: only relatives of the executed could attend, and these guests dressed with their hair up and their necks exposed, mimicking the condemned. For all the fear and bloodshed of the Revolution, the guillotine doesnt appear to have been hated or reviled, indeed, the contemporary nicknames, things like the national razor, the widow, and Madame Guillotine seem to be more accepting than hostile. Some sections of society even referred, although probably largely in jest, to a  Saint Guillotine  who would save them from tyranny. It is, perhaps, crucial that the device was never associated wholly with any one single group, and that Robespierre himself was guillotined, enabling the machine to rise above petty party politics, and establish itself as an arbiter of some higher justice. Had the guillotine been seen as the tool of a group who became hated, then the guillotine might have been rejected, but by staying almost neutral it lasted, and became its own thing. Was the Guillotine to Blame? Historians have debated whether The Terror would have been possible without the guillotine, and its widespread reputation as a humane, advanced, and altogether revolutionary piece of equipment. Although water and gunpowder laid behind much of the slaughter, the guillotine was a focal point: did the population accept this new, clinical, and merciless machine as their own, welcoming its common standards when they might have balked at mass hangings and separate, weapon based, beheadings? Given the size and death toll of other European incidents within the same decade, this might be unlikely; but whatever the situation, la guillotine had become known across Europe within only a few years of its invention. Post-Revolutionary Use The history of the guillotine does not end with the French Revolution. Many other countries adopted the machine, including Belgium, Greece, Switzerland, Sweden and some German states; French colonialism also helped to export the device abroad. Indeed, France continued to use, and improve upon, the guillotine for at least another century. Leon Berger, a carpenter and executioners assistant, made a number of refinements in the early 1870s. These included springs to cushion the falling parts (presumably repeated use of the earlier design could damage the infrastructure), as well as a new release mechanism. The Berger design became the new standard for all French guillotines. A further, but very  short lived,  change  occurred under the executioner Nicolas Roch in the late 19th century; he included a board at the top to cover the blade, hiding it from an approaching victim. Rochs successor had the screen swiftly removed. Public executions continued in France until 1939, when Eugene Weidmann became the last open-air victim. It had thus taken nearly one hundred and fifty years for the practice to comply with Guillotins original wishes, and be hidden from the public eye. Although the machines use had gradually fallen after the revolution, executions in Hitlers Europe rose to a level that neared, if not exceeded, that of The Terror. The last State use of the guillotine in France occurred on September 10th  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹1977,  when Hamida Djandoubi was executed; there should have been another in 1981, but the intended victim, Philippe Maurice, was granted clemency. The death penalty was abolished in France that same year. The  Infamy of the Guillotine There have been many methods of execution used in Europe, including the mainstay of hanging and the more recent firing squad, but none have quite the lasting reputation or imagery as the guillotine, a machine which continues to provoke fascination. The guillotines creation is often blurred into the, almost immediate, period of its most famous use and the machine has become the most characteristic element of the French Revolution. Indeed, although the history of decapitation machines stretches back at least eight hundred years, often involving constructions that were almost identical to the guillotine, it is this later device which dominates. The guillotine is certainly evocative, presenting a chilling image entirely at odds with the original intention of a painless death. Dr. Guillotin Finally, and contrary to legend, Doctor Joseph Ignace Guillotin was not executed by his own machine; he lived until  1814,  and died of biological causes.

Do You Mark Books Get Even More Arguments To Do It!

Do You Mark Books Get Even More Arguments To Do It! Tips on Marking a Book To mark or not to mark? Some people consider marking books disrespectful, while others think that it is an important part of the reading process.   There are those, who consider people marking their books untidy ones and they do everything they can to keep their own books clean. However, if you didn’t borrow a book from your fellows or in a library, there is absolutely nothing wrong in making notes on the pages of a book that you own. If you read the book for pleasure, there is no need to make notes, and in most of the cases, you will forget the plot right after the book is finished. However, if you want to get new information and knowledge, it is necessary not only to listen to the authors but to communicate with them. Making notes shows that you are interested in the book and that you are involved in the process. Marking a book may include making notes about words and phrases, rhetorical questions, complex terms, ideas or even elements you disagree with. Our article was created to guide you through the active reading process, to explain the importance of a marked book and the ways to do it efficiently. Necessity of Marking Books If you have already forgiven yourself for making notes on the book’s pages, you may notice that many reasons will help you benefit from the process.   Below we have gathered only some of the most important reasons why everyone should make notes on the pages and free spaces of a book. It Makes Second Reading Simpler If you are going to a certain city for the second time, it would be much easier to know where to go and what places to see, right? On your first trip, you can make notes on the places you liked or disliked: a cafà © with delicious local cuisine, a cozy park near the railway station or a bar with live music. Bookmarking is quite similar because it simplifies the process of second reading if you need it. You have already made a few points during the first reading: highlighted difficult words or phrases marked a new concept and wrote down its definition on a margin.That is why when the time comes to read the book once again, you will save your time and nerves looking for a complex word or term in a dictionary. Interacting with the Author Many people don’t like reading, because they find it boring as if they are listening to a college lecture. That is why marking a book helps to communicate with the writer, and you get involved in the discussion, reacting to the points you agree or disagree with. If you find a weird or controversial issue, you may be willing to conduct your own research and to find out more about the issue. Of course, this may be time-consuming and difficult at first, but if you practice regularly, it will become simpler with time. You Learn More Effectively Reading is one of the most efficient ways of learning new information. While it is a receptive skill, writing is a productive one, and a combination of both is a great way to turn passive reading into active learning. When you make notes, it is simpler to learn. Instead of just consuming the information you share it, diving deeper into the subject. It results in higher productivity, better results of remembering information and discovering new issues. You Learn How to Write It may not be obvious at first but marking a book helps to improve writing skills. When you are reading a book, you will surely find unfamiliar words, idioms, and concepts.   This helps to broaden your vocabulary and to notice how various writing instruments and tools are used throughout the text. With time you will find it much simpler to render your ideas, and the number of unknown words will be much lower! An Annotated Book Will Become a Great Gift Making notes is quite a personal thing, and most of the people don’t want to share it with others. However, if you are planning to hand your marked book to a relative or friend, you can be sure that it will become a unique and valuable present. You have spent lots of your time to make notes, mark terms and definitions and to put your thoughts on paper. If you are willing to give out your ideas to others, it will surely be appreciated. It is a result of your hard work and devotion, and it will make the recipient feel important and valuable. Tools for Marking a Book When you annotate a book, you need to understand what instruments will be efficient to achieve your initial goal. Here are the tips that will help you to choose the most suitable tools: If you decide to use a highlighter, make sure that the color allows reading the highlighted sentences without any difficulties. Light colors are the best ones. For example, yellow or orange. In addition, try to stick only to a few colors, because having a rainbow on a page will only distract you from the initial goal; If you prefer using a pen, make sure that it is of a dark color to make reading notes simpler; In case you don’t want to write on pages and prefer keeping the book clean, you can choose sticky notes. They are a great alternative to pens and highlighters, although it is more difficult and time-consuming to use them; If you are reading an electronic version (in an ePub, PDF or other formats), there is usually a bookmark option in the main menu, which allows making notes. It is a great alternative to regular notes and saves lots of time because you can easily navigate between pages and find a necessary bookmark simply by making a few clicks. It is very likely that you already have your own marking habits and style. However, there is always a place for improving them. You should pay attention to the following tips that may greatly improve your marking and annotating experience. Say No to Distractions If you decided to mark your book, you need to understand that it is not a regular reading and you will need to devote all of your attention to the process.   Make sure you read in a calm and quiet atmosphere without any distractions. If you don’t have your own room, choose a library or inform your roommates that you will be studying and will need some time alone. Don’t Be in a Hurry You may be used to reading a book on high speed but annotating is difficult and will take lots of your time. That is why you need to be involved in the process, making pauses and rereading paragraphs if necessary. There is no need to be in a hurry because your goal is to get as much knowledge as possible and not just to finish the book as soon as possible. If you want to master annotating, you need to do your job well. Always Highlight and Underline Words and Phrases That Are Important To begin with, you can highlight words or phrases that you find important. Use a highlighter or a pen to mark elements, which render the main ideas of the author. Even if you are not familiar with the words or structures, you need to highlight them and then conduct research to make everything clearer. However, you need to highlight only a few key words and sentences, because otherwise your pages will look too complex and clumsy, and you will find it difficult to use those notes later. Experiment With Shapes for Keywords If a certain word appears several times on a page, most likely it is one of the key points that the author is willing to render. Just be creative and use the shapes and colors you like. For example, blue rectangles or yellow circles. If the author is willing to attract your attention by a certain term, why don’t you highlight it? In case such brief marks are not enough, you can number them and then make notes on the margins to develop your thought on the issue. Use Punctuation Marks Luckily, there is a huge variety of marks to choose from. If you write a question mark after a sentence, it means that you didn’t get the point and want to clarify it. If you place an exclamation mark, it means that you are surprised to find out an important and previously unknown fact. Asterisk means that you can’t agree with the statement. It is possible to invent marks on your own, assigning them with a certain meaning. Moreover, it is allowed to use smiley faces and any symbols you want! It is your book, your marks, and your rules. Put Key Sections into Braces and Brackets It is also advisable to use braces or brackets to highlight important parts.   Brackets can be used if you want to mark a short passage, which is crucial for the text. In addition, these symbols are made to highlight examples that are made on the discussed point. Mark Complex Words You can also write down the words you can’t understand, making a sort of a list. You can either use sticky notes or write the words down on the margins after looking them up in the dictionary. If you find this not enough, you can even make notes on the synonyms or the most popular examples. This means that you should always have a dictionary nearby and a separate notebook for such words. Trust us, this is a great way not only to understand the book but also to improve your writing skills. Use Numbers to Highlight Points If the author supports a particular claim with several points, you can assign each of them with a number and then write those numbers on the margins. Just put numbers at the beginning of the corresponding passage. This will help you to link a particular sentence to the idea you have written down. An alternative way of using numbers is to reference pages that contain additional points on the issue. Many points that are relevant to the topic may be placed all over the book, and it can be quite difficult to find and organize them. If you notice related points on other pages, you can assign them with numbers, like ‘p7’. This means that similar information can be found on page 7. Mark Rhetorical and Literary Devices If you not only want to understand the subject but also to improve your writing, it is a great idea to assign various symbols to literary tools. In such a way you create a great basis for future research and significantly improve your writing skills. Make Comments and Ask Questions You should always keep in mind that you are an active reader, so all of the questions that pop in your head should be written down and answered. You may also have comments on different issues, and they shouldn’t be neglected. There is always plenty of space on margins, which you can use for your thoughts. Write down comments or ask questions. It can be a great way to develop the topic or to refer to other readers if you are planning to hand the book. Moreover, if you want to contact the author in the future, you will have a ready list of questions. Summarize Book’s Sections After You Have Finished the Book The bottom section of the book has plenty of space to summarize information that you have understood from the page. Start your summary with a keyword that will embody the main idea of the passage.   In addition, you can use free pages at the beginning or at the end of the book. However, don’t forget that it is a summary and summaries are always brief. Work on the Index If you start reading a book, already knowing its key themes and concepts, it will be possible to create your own index of passages and pages that correspond with these themes and concepts. Eventually, your index will be as important as the author’s one. Conclusion Annotating a book is quite a difficult process, which requires attention and time. However, it is worth it, because as a result, you get a deep understanding of the topic and improved writing and analytical skills. If the book is your property, you can use it the way you want, making notes and highlighting important sections. Even if you decide to hand it to someone else, it will be a valuable gift.

Human resources management at Foxconn - 2 Essay

Human resources management at Foxconn - 2 - Essay Example It has been estimated that Foxconn currently supplies nearly forty percent of all electronic components required worldwide (Duhigg & Bradsher, 2012). Additionally, Foxconn generates a revenue of around 3.5 billion USD each year and employs around 1.2 million people worldwide, making it the single largest global employer (Business Week, 2013). In recent years Foxconn’s employment practices have come under intense scrutiny given a number of untoward incidents with Foxconn employees. The suicide rate in Foxconn workers shot up following 2010 in China while there was an intense riot in the Mexican manufacturing plant (Daily Mail, 2006). Human Resource Management (HRM) Issues and Solutions HRM Problems Foxconn has been blamed for providing workers with low compensation compared to other establishments. However, it must be taken into account that Foxconn’s Chinese plants are in one of the country’s poorest regions and hence people are willing to work for the wages offe red (Daily Mail, 2006). As long as labour supply and demand economics remain unaltered, the minimum pay of the workers in Foxconn’s plants will remain the same. On another note, there have been massive complaints that Foxconn tends to skip out on overtime payments even though workers are forced to work overtime. In certain cases, Foxconn employees have not been paid wages for various reasons without much proper justification. Additionally, there have been instances where work place accidents were either ignored outright or paid little attention to (Williams, 2012). This indicates that management attitudes towards safety are relatively low if not lax altogether. There have also been allegations that work place accidents are common at Foxconn manufacturing plants and often such accidents go unreported. HRM Solutions A number of different HRM solutions can be presented in order to deal with Foxconn’s current problems. This paper will limit its focus to Goleman’s Em otional Intelligence model and the Managerial Grid model in order to solicit solutions for Foxconn’s employment problems. Goleman’s Emotional Intelligence Goleman (1998) has declared that emotional intelligence is essentially the â€Å"sine qua non† of any leadership mechanism (Goleman, 1998). Emotional intelligence can be seen as the ability to recognise, evaluate and manipulate the emotions and emotional states of oneself and of other individuals. Goleman’s model (1998) asserts that a leader needs to be able to identify emotional symptoms in order to manipulate the worker to submit to the leader’s settled direction. However, it must be kept in mind that Goleman’s model (1998) has come under intense scrutiny on a number of different accounts and needs to be evaluated accordingly to provide solutions for Foxconn’s problems. For one thing, Goleman’s model (1998) has been criticised for being too qualitative in nature and of bein g unfounded through actual HRM practice. Goleman’s model (1998) and its derivatives do boast of quantitative tools such as the Emotional Competency Inventory (ECI) and the Emotional and Social Competency Inventory (ESCI) but the use of such tools has not been approved of except in academic circles (Bradberry & Greaves, 2009). The application of Goleman’s model and its derivatives to the world’s largest private employer, Foxconn, would make little sense as

Criminal Punishment Program Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Criminal Punishment Program - Research Paper Example In June 1972, Furman v. Georgia reduced the support for death penalty, when the Supreme Court held capital punishment to be unconstitutional and voided 40 death penalty statutes. Several more rulings questioned the constitutionality of capital punishment, though many states continue the program. This paper discusses the history and outcomes of death penalty in the U.S. It also uses applicable criminological theories that help explain the different results of capital punishment programs. Despite scholarly evidence and arguments that showed that death penalty does not deter the incidence of violent crimes, majority of Americans continue to support it and other studies prove its deterrence. History of Death Penalty in the United States The first death penalty laws can be dated to eighteenth century B.C. in the Code of King Hammurabi of Babylon, which applied the death penalty for twenty-five kinds of crimes. Britain influenced American death penalty because the English brought this prog ram with them to the New World. The first person who was executed through capital punishment was Captain George Kendall in the Jamestown colony of Virginia in 1608 (DPIC, 2013). Kendall was put to death for being a spy for Spain. The abolition movement for death penalty began during the colonial times too. Montesquieu, Voltaire and Bentham wrote against it, although the most prominent opposition came from Cesare Beccaria’s 1767 essay, On Crimes and Punishment (DPIC, 2013). Beccaria argued that no one can justify the state’s execution of human lives. Throughout the nineteenth century, death penalty witnessed different reforms, aside from abolition in some states. Instead of being applied in all crimes, for instance, it was applied to capital crimes in a number of states. After the Civil War, new means of execution developed. The electric chair was developed and used at the end of the nineteenth century. New York made its first electric chair, which was first used on Wil liam Kemmler (DPIC, 2013). Other states followed this technology. The early and middle twentieth century witnessed the ups and downs of the capital punishment program. From 1907 to 1917, six states banned the death penalty, while three reduced it to cases concerning treason and first degree murder of a law enforcement official (DPIC, 2013). These reforms were cut short because of the Russian Revolution and World War I, where five of the six abolitionist states reapplied death penalty in 1920. The 1960s and the 1970s tested the constitutionality of the capital punishment program. In 1958, the Supreme Court ruled in Trop v. Dulles (356 U.S. 86) that the Eighth Amendment embodied an â€Å"evolving standard of decency that marked the progress of a maturing society† (DPIC, 2013). In 1972, Furman v. Georgia, Jackson v. Georgia, and Branch v. Texas led to the Supreme Court asserting that death penalty is arbitrary. In Furman, the Supreme Court created the standard that a punishment would be â€Å"cruel and unusual,† if it was too severe for the crime, if it was capricious, if it offended society's sense of justice, or it if was not more effective than a less harsh penalty (DPIC, 2013). At present, the United States numbers of death sentences are gradually falling from 300 in 1998 to 106 in 2009 (DPIC, 2013). Though execution rates are declining, Gallup poll shows that the majority of Americans continue to favor capital punishment. In its 2012 survey, 63% of those surveyed supported death penalty

Rehabilitation :: Legal Issues, Drug Courts, Probation

Walker cites the National Academy of Sciences stating that rehabilitation is â€Å"any planned intervention that reduces an offender’s further criminal activity (Walker 251).† Walker breaks down rehabilitation models into two groups, the new and the old groups. The new groups that Walker suggests may have some positive hope are reentry programs, and drug courts. The old groups include probation, parole, and other reintegration programs. Worrall has a similar definition of rehabilitation, stating that â€Å"rehabilitation consist of a planned intervention intended to change behavior (Worrall 40). He similarly assesses several of these programs and reaches similar conclusions as Walker. Drug courts are specialized courts that focus on substance abuse. Generally offenders are offered the chance at skipping prison or jail sentences if they successfully complete a substance abuse treatment program (Walker 275). Walker assesses drug courts, when they are well managed and designed carefully, as being promising as possibly lowering recidivism (Walker 277). Worrall reached similar conclusions, stating that while much of the research into the effectiveness of drug courts has suffered from design limitations, they have shown reductions in recidivism (Worrall 168). Reentry programs try and take a fresh look at sending prisoners back into society after revamped educational and counseling programs (Walker 363). Unfortunately there is not a lot of evidence that these programs reduce recidivism rates (Walker 363) Walker concludes that the evidence is inconclusive, programs are in their early stages, and more research is necessary due to the current crisis of so many prisoners be ing released (Walker 363). Probation is where offenders receive supervision and treatment in the community rather than in a correctional setting (Walker 255). Walker assesses probation as necessary and appropriate for many offenders. However he also state that most probation programs fail, and that there is no evidence that one probation program is more effective than another (Walker 257). This is due to several reasons, first probationers largely receive no treatment, only supervision, and even this supervision is often very intermittent, and there are quality control issues with both treatments and supervision (Walker 256). Parole is the most classic example of a reintegration program, and it involves releasing a prisoner early back into the community, usually under some type of treatment and supervision, similar to probation (Walker 257). Besides trying to rehabilitate offenders, parole also serves several other purposes, such as giving prisoners an incentive to behave well, giving the corrections system a tool to control prisoners, and serves as a way to deal with prison overcrowding (Walker 257).

Benjamin Franklin Analysis

On Choosing a Mistress â€Å"On Choosing a Mistress† is a letter written by Benjamin Franklin to advise one of his close friends about choosing a mistress. In his 1745 letter, Franklin conveys that marriage is the only remedy for lustful inclinations, but if the friend is determined to stray outside marriage,  Franklin  advices, â€Å"you should prefer old Women to young ones. † Franklin  offers some basic, clean advice: they are more knowledgeable, they are more discreet, they cannot get pregnant, and then he gets down to more lascivious details.This letter was written by Benjamin Franklin long before he became president of the United States of America, Benjamin at the time was in the midst of his life. This document is unique because it was not intended for the public. The document suggests that Franklin still carried a sense of consciousness and morality, unlike what his critics say. The letter shows that Franklin was undoubtedly a really intelligent person wit h a sharp way of thinking. Franklin puts every prospect into effect in this letter; this explains why he was successful in life.The significance of this document comes in the fact that it is a personal letter rather than a document published for the public. This is extremely important in analyzing Benjamin Franklin’s personality accurately. Documents that are made for the public usually are written based upon what is accepted by the society, they tend to not include anything that may affect the writers’ reputation. It is clear that the society at the time in which the letter was written is different from today’s society in many ways. American society at the time was much more conservative than it is today.Sexual relationships outside of marriage were considered to be immoral and were shunned by the society. Franklin is wary about not having a person to make the mistake of being found of having an illegal relation or begetting an illegitimate child. The former po int may a result of his own experience with his legitimate son William. . In his 6th and 7th point, Franklin puts into effect the guilt of ruining a virgin girl’s life. He furthermore makes it clear that marriage is the most proper way to fulfill sexual desires. This explains that Franklin still has emphasis for morals and ethics.The conclusions about Franklin’s person put forward from this letter could in fact be used to foreshadow the decisions he made in his future, and how he calculated each decision by carefully studying all the negatives and positives. Supporters of Benjamin Franklin regard this letter in contrary with his critics. Supporters may argue that Franklin understood that not everyone was in the right situation to get married. They also argue that the point put out by this was only to be used as a last resort. Benjamin’s critics rather carry a conflicting opinion.These documents have used as means to demoralize Benjamin Franklin by his enemies. T hey claim that Benjamin was in fact a whoremonger. Regardless of who’s view is more accurate, this letter still demonstrates Franklin’s extraordinary intelligence in critical thinking and decision making. Three Fables Franklin was never content with mere learned argument and syllogism in his campaigns in the press. In 1770, he had written and published three fables teaching the foolishness of punitive measures against the American colonies.These three fables portrayed Franklin’s stunning use of literature for propaganda purposes. These fables also resembled the oppressive measures taken by Britain through the numerous acts which were seen as a heavy burden by the colonists. Franklin portrays the colonies as the cows, the cat, and the lion, while portraying Britain as the farmer, the eagle, and the mastiff. Consequently in all three fables, the weak overcomes the strong, but only as a result of extreme oppression by the strong. These fables may be have been perce ived as an indirect threat to the British in colonial America.The fables were published during a time in which there was increasing tension between the colonists and the British. Franklin at the time was appointed as an agent of several colonies to the crown. His job was to convince the king and the parliament to change their policies towards the American colonies. These fables further ascertain Franklin’s enormous talent in literature. Writing such precise and explanatory stories in just a few sentences require a great author, Franklin has proven himself likewise.Franklin attempted to use these fables as political propaganda, as well as to draw support towards the American cause. By getting the English lords and decision makers to view it, Benjamin franklin wanted to make it clear that treating the American colonies as cash cows would certainly backfire. This document draws its significant mainly due to the foreshadowing of the American Revolution. Not many people would prob ably have taken this writing seriously when it was first published, but some years later and with the beginning of the American Revolution, people would truly start to admire these fables.The British decision makers in which the fables were inscribed probably have showed little interest, that is clearly shown by the fact they continued to ignore the demands of the American colonies. Perhaps the nature of these fables prompted the British decision makers to further ignore the demands because they saw these fables as a challenge, and they wanted to show that they could face such challenges. Franklins has done an excellent job in summoning his literary skills for the American cause. The writing of the â€Å"Three Fables† was a symbolic warning to the English administration.Although the fables sounded threatening, the English parliament still didn’t react seriously to the American demands. Benjamin’s writing was an early foreshadowing of the American Revolution. He has shown that he is indeed a true American patriot. Rules by which A Great empire May Be Reduced to a Small One After failing to secure support in England, Franklin resorted to political satire in order to express the colonies grievances. In the 1770s, even after helping to defeat the Stamp Act and (later) the Townsend Acts, Franklin grew frustrated with the British leaders' ignorance of America and condescending attitude toward the colonies.Franklin at the time was still an ambassador of several American colonies to Britain. He wrote more essays denouncing British policies towards America. â€Å"Rules  By  Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One† was one of the most known of these essays. The essay was clearly deprecated by the British. Franklin argued that the settlers and their ancestors were the ones who have built and expanded the colonies. Benjamin Franklin has shown that he was a true patriot through this essay. Franklin’s essay was most likely r eceived by widespread discontent by both the public and the authorities in England.The fact that the writing threatened that British colonies may start breaking away has caused many British nationalists to condemn and refuse Franklins ideas. Even some of the lords who held some sympathy for the American cause pulled out their support after this essay was published. The King has probably received this with even wider discontent. It did not only make a direct threat to the kings’ authority, but the points within were more of an order than that of a request. That may have further prompted the British authorities to ignore the requests.Franklin also argued that the colonists and their ancestors are the ones who worked hard to bring the colonies to what they were at the time. Most colonials would have agreed with Franklins reasoning. Many of the American born colonists did not see any real connection with Britain. This shows the deepening division that was occurring between the Am erican colonies and Britain at the time. Although the writing shows that Benjamin franklin would have preferred to prevent violent escalation between Britain and the American colonies, it was clear he put the interest of the American colonies first.Benjamin franklin has pointed out some great points in the document â€Å"Rules  By  Which a Great Empire May Be Reduced to a Small One†. His ideas which threatened that British colonies may did not sound appealing to people of Britain. This piece of writing also showed the widening rift between Britain and the American colonies. It was also made clear that Franklin put the interest of the American colonies as a priority. Although he sounded strict in some of his points, He has shown that he indeed does have what it takes to be a great leader.

Euthanasi An Utilitarian Perspective - 1676 Words

Euthanasia is one of the topics that have aroused heated ethical debate all over the universe. By definition, euthanasia, also known as mercy killing can be termed as the practice of allowing a slow and less painful death on terminally ill patients or on patient’s that have lost the hope of living. I argue that the practice of euthanasia need not involve the doctor’s moral feelings for they are irrelevant and therefore should be practiced to ensure that the terminally-ill patients and the public do not undergo unnecessary suffering. Williams argues that the utilitarian view fails to take the consideration of the agent’s moral feelings performing the act. I contend that this fails because Mill’s theory strongly implies that ends are desirable in so far as people desire them. I will first articulate the utilitarian perspective on euthanasia, I show why Williams argument does not succeed, because he fails to consider the desires of the others involved in the situation. I then offer a response based on the utilitarian perspective and discount his argument. The philosophical lens argument that seems to approve and uphold euthanasia is the utilitarian point of view. The utilitarian theory claims that the decision to undertake the doctor-assisted suicide is perfectly within the moral threshold of society. The normative ethical theory of utilitarianism seems to derive its basis from the fact that the best action and the right thing to do is which derives the most benefit to others.